🔆 Kashmir’s Scorching Summer: Heat Records and Urban Impact

📍 Seven-decade high in Srinagar amid erratic climate shifts

✅ Record-Breaking Heat in Kashmir:
◦ Srinagar recorded a seven-decade high temperature on July 5, 2025, reaching 37.4°C — third-highest for July on record.
◦ Pahalgam hit 31.6°C, its highest ever; June 2025 was the hottest in Kashmir in nearly 50 years.

✅ Climatic Characteristics of Kashmir:
◦ The valley has a temperate climate with four distinct seasons.
◦ Summer (June–August) is the warmest, with urban highs touching 36°C.

✅ Recent Climatic Changes:
◦ Long dry spells, erratic weather, and consistent warming have become frequent.
◦ In June, temperatures were ~3°C above normal, with declining rainfall.

✅ Urban Heat Islands (UHIs):
◦ Urbanisation, concretisation, loss of vegetation, and vanishing water bodies trap heat in cities like Srinagar.
◦ Urban areas are now warmer than rural surroundings — classic UHI pattern.

✅ Reasons Behind the Warming:
◦ Climate change + local factors like melting snow by March, less snowfall, vehicle emissions, and construction.
◦ Green cover decline reduces natural cooling.

✅ Worrying Trends:
◦ Max temperatures in June now stay between 32°C to 33°C, far above historical averages.
◦ Not isolated — min & max temperatures remain consistently elevated.
◦ Kashmir now shows signs of heatwave-like conditions, rare in past decades.

✅ Environmental/Ecological Impacts:
◦ Drying rivers (e.g. Jhelum) and increased water stress seen.
◦ Air conditioner demand surges — power and energy systems under pressure.
◦ Long-term threats to agriculture, water security, and ecology.

📘 Source: The Indian Express | July 2025

📝 Mains Q (GS1 + GS3 – Geography + Environment)
“Rising temperatures in ecologically sensitive regions like Kashmir reflect both global and local anthropogenic pressures.” Discuss the causes, impacts, and mitigation strategies with reference to recent heatwave-like conditions in the Valley.

#GS1 #ClimateChange #GS3 #Kashmir #environment #geography

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🔆 Melting Glaciers May Trigger Volcanic Eruptions: Study

📍 West Antarctica, Iceland & New Zealand at highest risk

✅ Key Findings
• Melting glaciers & ice caps due to global warming reduce pressure on magma chambers.
• This pressure drop allows magma and gases to expand, triggering explosive volcanic eruptions.
• West Antarctica has ~100 buried volcanoes under ice and is most at risk.

✅ Global Evidence & Trends
• Past deglaciation in Iceland saw 30–50× higher eruption rates.
• Volcanoes beneath ice sheets (e.g., Mocho-Choshuenco, Chile) erupted when pressure dropped post-melt.
• Lower pressure = lower melting point of magma → more eruptions.

✅ Role of Precipitation
• Precipitation, altered by climate change, can penetrate underground, reacting with magma and triggering eruptions.

✅ Climate Feedback Effects
• Volcanic eruptions eject ash & sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere:
 – Ash causes temporary cooling by blocking sunlight
 – Sulfur dioxide forms reflective aerosols, cooling Earth
• But sustained eruptions release CO₂ and methane, contributing to long-term global warming.

✅ Conclusion
• A vicious cycle is emerging:
 – Global warming melts glaciers
 – Ice loss triggers eruptions
 – Eruptions release GHGs → further warming

📝 Prelims MCQ:
Which of the following effects is caused by volcanic eruptions?
A) Only global cooling
B) Only global warming
C) Both cooling and warming depending on duration
D) Neither cooling nor warming

Answer: C

📝 Mains GS1/GS3 Question:
How does climate change affect volcanic activity and how might this contribute to climate feedback loops?

#GS1 #Geography #GS3 #ClimateChange #Volcanoes #environment

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🔆 Mantle Plume – Geography & Disaster Management

📍 A mantle plume is a localized, upwelling column of hot magma rising from deep within the Earth’s mantle, possibly from the core-mantle boundary. These plumes are thought to be stationary and independent of tectonic plate boundaries.

✅ Key Features
🔹 Origin: Deep mantle or core-mantle boundary (~2,900 km depth)
🔹 Nature: Buoyant and hot, it melts the overlying lithosphere, forming volcanic hotspots
🔹 Examples:
 ➤ Hawaiian Islands – Pacific Plate moving over a plume
 ➤ Deccan Traps – Result of the Réunion plume

✅ Importance
🔹 Explains intraplate volcanism (volcanoes away from plate boundaries)
🔹 Helps understand continental flood basalts and plate movements

#GS1 #Geography #MantlePlume #GS3 #DisasterManagement
#geographyoptional
#Disaster_management

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🔆 Polavaram-Banakacherla Link: A Hydrological Gamble?

📍 AP’s ₹81,900 crore inter-basin water transfer project raises major environmental, legal, and political concerns:

✅ Project Overview:
• Aims to transfer surplus Godavari water to drought-hit Rayalaseema via a 19.5-km tunnel through Nallamala forests.
• Expected to generate 3,377 MW, but actual generation may be just 430 MW.

✅ Legal and Political Tangles:
• Telangana objects, citing Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014, which mandates clearance from river boards for Krishna-Godavari projects.
• Centre yet to clarify if it’s an intra-state or inter-state project, creating a legal grey zone.

✅ Environmental Red Flags:
• Tunnel cuts through Nallamala Tiger Reserve, with 17,739 acres of forest land proposed for use.
• Environmental impact assessment pending; no CWC clearance yet.

✅ Unverified Assumptions:
• Hinges on claim that excess floodwaters from Godavari are going to sea — but no scientific verification.
• Past examples like Kaleshwaram Lift Project show risks of exaggerated water availability claims.

✅ Funding & Execution Model:
• Implemented via hybrid annuity model:
🔹 ₹16,380 cr Central grants
🔹 ₹8,190 cr State equity
🔹 ₹16,380 cr private investment
• Executed by Jalaharathi Corporation.

✅ Core Criticism:
• Lacks financial, environmental, and legal viability.
• Seen by critics as politically motivated; could become a “bargaining chip” in Centre-state politics.

📝 Prelims MCQ

Q. The Polavaram Banakacherla Link Project passes through which ecologically sensitive area?

A. Aravalli Forest
B. Gir Forest
C. Nallamala Forest
D. Nilgiri Biosphere

🟩 Answer: C

📝 Mains GS2/GS3 Question

“Large-scale inter-basin water transfer projects in India must be evaluated not only for their technical feasibility, but also for their ecological and legal sustainability.” Critically evaluate in the context of the Polavaram Banakacherla project.

#GS3 #Environment #WaterGovernance #Federalism

🔆 How Cat Bonds Can Tackle Natural Disasters

📍 Catastrophe bonds offer financial protection when traditional insurance fails in disaster-hit regions like South Asia.

✅ What Are Cat Bonds?
• Hybrid insurance-cum-debt products
• Transfer disaster risk from insurers to capital markets
• Investors get high returns but lose capital if a disaster strikes
• Issued by states/sponsors via intermediaries like World Bank/ADB

✅ Why India Needs Them
• Low disaster insurance penetration
• Most Indians uninsured for property or livelihood loss
• India faces high disaster risk—floods, earthquakes, cyclones
• India already allocates $1.8B+ annually to mitigation (since FY22-23)
• Regional Cat Bond (India, Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka) can reduce cost & increase financial readiness

✅ How They Work
• Payout triggered when disaster exceeds a defined threshold
• Example: Earthquake above 6.6 magnitude
• Investors lose principal; funds go to sponsor country

✅ Advantages
• Diversifies financial risk from traditional reinsurance
• Attracts global investors interested in non-correlated risks
• Helpful for extreme climate events like floods, droughts, cyclones
• Improves post-disaster recovery speed

✅ Limitations
• Poorly designed bonds may fail to trigger payout despite severe disaster
• Requires robust data, transparent verification, and payout system

📝 Prelims MCQ
Which of the following best describes catastrophe bonds (cat bonds)?
A) Loans given to disaster-prone countries
B) Sovereign bonds issued for climate mitigation
C) Insurance-based financial instruments to cover disaster risks
D) Bonds linked to carbon credit markets

Answer: C

📝 Mains GS3 Question
Discuss the significance of catastrophe bonds for disaster risk management in South Asia. Can India take the lead in building a regional cat bond market?

#GS3 #DisasterManagement #Finance #Prelims2026
#geographyoptional
#Disaster_management

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🔆INDUSTRY: organisation involved in production & supply of goods & services.
Classifies as Primary, secondary, tertiary.
✅Primary sector: goods produced using natural resources.
🔸Acts as base of all other sectors.
Ex. Agriculture, Dairy etc.
✅ Secondary Sector: Natural produced turned into other forms by manufacturing Also called as Industrial sector
Ex. Making sugar from sugarcane
✅ Tertiary sector: Does not produce any goods & services.
🔸Provide services to other sectors.
Ex. Banking, transportation etc.

Factors affecting location for Industries:

✅ Availability of raw material
✅ Nature of industry
✅ Transportation facility
✅ Skilled and cheap labour availability
✅ Capital, entrepreneurship
✅ Electricity & fuel availability
✅ Market

#mains
#geography

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🔆Trinidad and Tobago
✅Location: Trinidad and Tobago is situated in the Caribbean Sea, off the northern edge of the South American mainland, just off the coast of Venezuela.
✅It is part of the Lesser Antilles in the West Indies, geographically positioned between the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea.
✅The islands lie close to the continent of South America, separated by the Gulf of Paria.
✅Physical Features: Trinidad, the larger of the two islands, is mostly flat with some low mountain ranges and fertile plains.
✅Tobago, the smaller island, is more rugged and mountainous.
The region lies close to the Orinoco River Delta and experiences tropical maritime climate.
✅Capital: Port of Spain
✅Demographic Aspects: Over 35% of the population is of Indian descent, largely tracing their roots to indentured labourers brought from India during British colonial rule.

#Places_in_news

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🔆 Jarawa Tribe to be Covered in 2027 Census

📍 Govt outreach to PVTGs in Andaman
✅ The 2027 Census will include six main indigenous tribes of the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, including the Jarawas.
✅ The Union government has already made contact with these groups and is running several welfare schemes.
✅ Census will be conducted in two phases:
• Oct 1, 2026 – snow-bound areas (Ladakh)
• Mar 1, 2027 – rest of India
✅ Jarawas live in nomadic bands of 40–50, are hunter-gatherers, and among the oldest surviving tribes globally.
✅ The 2011 Census recorded 380 Jarawa individuals.
✅ Efforts focus on non-intrusive health support, trust-building, and minimal interference with traditional practices.

📝 Prelims MCQ
Which of the following tribes in Andaman & Nicobar Islands is classified as a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG)?
A) Nicobarese
B) Jarawa
C) Great Andamanese
D) None of the above
Answer: B

📝 Mains GS1 Q
Discuss the significance and ethical concerns in conducting demographic surveys among Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs), with special reference to the Jarawa tribe of the Andaman Islands.

#GS1 #PVTG #Jarawa #Andaman #Census2027 #TribalAffairs #UPSCMains2025